Attributional Style in Depression a Meta-analytic Review Pdf
Abstract
Groundwork. The construct of attributional way refers to the specific ways people explicate events, both positive and negative. Previous research has shown that optimistic attributional style (OAS) for negative events was reliably associated with low rates of depression. On the opposite, an optimistic attributional style for positive events is a dissever phenomenon associated mainly with well-being, only these relationships remain underexplored.
Objective. This study aimed to explore the predictive ability of OAS-Positive, its relationships with subjective well-being, and possible personality mediators related to positive functioning. Nosotros hypothesized that the abilities to feel grateful and enjoy positive life events mediate the relationship between optimistic thinking most positive outcomes and subjective well-being.
Design. A сross-sectional design was implemented. The participants were 271 adults from Moscow and Moscow Region (Thou age = 32.42, SD=12.9).
Results. The results of regression assay showed that both life satisfaction and subjective happiness depended on gratitude, self-esteem, and dispositional optimism, but only happiness was predicted by savoring the moment. The results of structural equation modeling were consistent with the hypothesis since the structural model revealed that the furnishings of OAS-Positive on subjective well-being were fully mediated by gratitude and savoring the moment, likewise as self-esteem and dispositional optimism. The mediated effects of OAS-Negative through self-esteem and gratitude were inconsistent, and its full indirect effect on subjective well-existence was not significant.
Decision. This inquiry provides preliminary evidence that optimistic thinking about positive life events promotes subjective well-being through a system of positive psychological traits and attitudes which include gratitude and savoring the moment.
Introduction
Optimistic A ttributional Style for Negative and Positive Events
The notion of attributional (or explanatory) style is a primal concept of reformulated learned helplessness theory (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978) and its later version, the theory of hopelessness (Abramson, Metalsky, & Blend, 1989). Attributional style is a cognitive personality variable that reflects the specific style people explicate the causes of positive or negative events in their lives. It was originally conceptualized equally having three dimensions: stability, globality, and internality (locus) (Peterson et al., 1982). Information technology was assumed that people with an optimistic attributional style would tend to explain positive events with causes which are stable in time (i.e., will ever exist), global (i.e., affecting all parts of their life – professional person and individual), and internal (due to them). On the contrary, optimists explain negative events with unstable (i.e., this cause will never arise again), local (affecting just one specific role of their lives), and external causes (not due to them).
Conversely, the theory posited that people with a pessimistic attributional style would tend to explain negative events using stable, global, and internal causes, and positive events using unstable, local, and external causes. Nonetheless, the locus dimension has been shown to demonstrate low reliability (Cutrona, Russell, & Jones, 1984; Smith, Caputi, & Crittenden, 2013), equally well as questionable construct validity (Travers, Creed, & Morrissey, 2015). Consequently, as recommended past Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989), and Seligman (2002), many researchers have abandoned the locus dimension (due east.g., Houston, 1994).
Initially, nearly attributional style (AS) enquiry was focused on the human relationship between a pessimistic AS for negative events, and depression and ill-being. This arroyo was based on the Peterson's idea that an AS for bad events is more than informative than an Equally for good events, considering people's reactions to negative uncontrollable life events adjust to the learned helplessness theory and the theory of hopelessness (Peterson, 1991). As well, the early works of Seligman, Abramson, Semmel, and Baeyer (1979) showed that the association of a pessimistic AS for positive events with depression was weaker than the association of a pessimistic AS for negative events. The stronger clan of a pessimistic AS for negative events than for positive events was as well confirmed by a meta-assay by Sweeney, Anderson, and Bailey (1986). Following these findings, many authors excluded positive situations from Every bit questionnaires (EASQ; Peterson & Villanova, 1988; Dykema, Bergbower, Doctora, & Peterson, 1996).
Studies by Peterson and several meta-analyses (Peterson, Villanova, & Raps, 1985; Sweeney et al., 1986; Hu, Zhang, & Yang, 2015) confirmed that a pessimistic attributional style for negative life outcomes is a reliable predictor of depression. Other studies revealed that a pessimistic attributional mode for negative events is associated with anxiety (Lynd-Stevenson & Rigano, 1996; Ralph & Mineka, 1998), hostility (Boman, Smith, & Curtis, 2003), and neuroticism (Cheng & Furnham, 2001), also equally health issues (Peterson & Seligman, 1987; Yuan & Wang, 2016), and health complaints (Reilley, Geers, Lindsay, Deronde, & Dember, 2005). Studies of OAS-Positive accept long been neglected, and Peterson would later conclude that this fail of positive events was a regrettable error (Peterson & Park, 2007).
Factor analytic studies take proven the independence of positive and negative attributional style factors (Peterson, 1991; Xenikou et al., 1997), thus confirming the inefficiency of computing the full score for attributional fashion and the importance of an OAS-Positive. Therefore, the recent trend of inquiry in this surface area has switched from studies of OAS-Negative to analysis of the role of positive events attributions in the people's sense of well-being.
Studies of OAS-Positive have shown its positive human relationship with subjective well-beingness (SWB), including happiness (Cheng & Furnham, 2001, 2003; Gordeeva & Osin, 2011) and life satisfaction (Rigby & Huebner, 2005), equally well every bit extraversion and emotional stability (Rigby & Huebner, 2005), negative associations with low (Gordeeva & Osin, 2011), and successful bookish performance (Gordeeva et al., 2020). As for its relationship with various personality traits, Cheng and Furnham (2001) accept shown that an OAS-positive correlated positively with extraversion, and was unrelated to neuroticism and psychoticism. In a not-clinical sample of adolescents, an optimistic attributional style for positive events moderated the relationship betwixt negative life events and follow-up depressive symptoms (Vines & Nixon, 2009). However, to the best of our knowledge, all the studies that explored the relationship between an OAS-Positive and subjective well-being accept been based on samples of adolescents and university students. Given the variation of attributions by age (Blanchard-Fields & Beatty, 2005), it is important to address a wider age range in future research.
Thus, an optimistic attributional style for positive events and an optimistic attributional fashion for negative events are ii separate constructs, each of which has its own consequences. This study was dedicated to an OAS-Positive and its relationships with subjective well-being, since the mechanisms and potential mediators of attributions of positive events influencing people's well-being and positive functioning remain underexplored. In particular, this report aimed to investigate a cognitive mediation model, in which selected personality traits that characterize positive personality functioning were expected to mediate the relationship between optimistic attributions and SWB.
Looking for Personality Mediators of OAS-Positive and SWB
Our study focused on two well-known candidates for personality mediators – dispositional optimism and self-esteem – and two relatively new positive personality variables – gratitude and savoring – all of which imply noticing and valuing positive events. We hypothesized that these four variables may serve every bit mediators between an optimistic attributional mode and well-being. All iv variables take well established relationships with well-existence; yet, gratitude and savoring, unlike dispositional optimism and self-esteem, have not been studied in relation to optimistic attributional style. Below we consider each personality variable and its relationships with positive operation.
Gratitude. Theoretically, gratitude can be seen as an emotion, "an emotional response to a gift" (Emmons, 2005, p. 239), or equally a personality trait which is "office of a wider life orientation towards noticing and appreciating the positive in the world" (Woods, Froh, & Geraghty, 2010, p. 891). In our written report, we follow Wood's "life orientation" concept of gratitude. A large number of empirical studies have confirmed associations between gratitude and well-being: grateful people tend to exist happier (Watkins, Van Gelder, & Frias, 2009; Wood et al., 2010), and take both a higher level of life satisfaction and a higher level of positive emotions over negative ones (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Peterson, Ruch, Beerman, Park, & Seligman, 2007). Studies by Forest, Joseph, and Maltby (2008, 2009) have shown that gratitude was a reliable predictor of psychological well-being. The starting time study with a Russian-speaking sample confirmed the positive office of gratitude in well-being, a positive clan between gratitude, self-esteem, and resilience, and a negative association between gratitude, low, and interpersonal problems (Nartova-Bochaver & Kislitsa, 2017). Recent meta-analytic research suggests that gratitude interventions designed to increase appreciation of positive qualities, situations, and people in ane's life may improve psychological well-being, decreasing symptoms of depression and anxiety (Cregg & Cheavens, 2020).
The relationship betwixt attributions for positive events and gratitude has many grounds, since optimistic thinking tin can facilitate a grateful disposition toward other people, which in plow will increase subjective well-being. In line with this thought, McCullough, Emmons, and Tsang (2002) fence that "attributions are central to gratitude, and attributional style may be central to the disposition toward gratitude" (p. 113). Indeed, gratitude was establish to exist a pregnant predictor of reduced depressive attributions (Ali & Rizwan, 2018). We suggest that dispositional gratitude could be based on the tendency of grateful people to attribute the reasons for success to the stable and reliable help of others.
Savoring. Although a much less studied topic, savoring has been constitute to play an important role in man well-being. The concept of savoring was introduced by Bryant and Veroff, who defined it as people'due south "capacities to attend to, appreciate, and enhance the positive experiences in their lives" (Bryant & Veroff, 2007, p. 2). Savoring is not a process of experiencing a positive emotion; it is a cognitive process of directing attention to amplify and prolong positive emotions. In other words, savoring is a cognitive ability to terminate and "odour the roses." Bryant (2003) identifies 3 aspects of savoring: anticipating; savoring the moment; and reminiscing most past positive emotions or situations. These three kinds of savoring beliefs involve different temporal orientations to positive experience: perceived savoring capacity may stalk from behavior virtually one's ability to derive pleasure in the present by savoring the moment, and intensifying or prolonging their positive feelings through specific thoughts and behaviors, but as well by anticipating hereafter positive events or past reminiscing most past positive events.
Bryant has shown that savoring behavior were positively correlated with well-being, bear upon intensity, life satisfaction, and the intensity and frequency of happiness, as well as with aspects of positive performance, similar optimism, self-esteem, extraversion, internal locus of control, self-control, and reported self-control behaviors. They were negatively correlated with guilt, physical and social anhedonia, hopelessness, depression, neuroticism, and the frequency of unhappy and neutral affect, and uncorrelated with socially desirable responses (Bryant, 2003). Other studies have confirmed that savoring is associated with a broad range of variables reflecting positive operation, such as optimism, internal locus of control, and self-command, as well equally life satisfaction (Bryant, Smart, & King, 2005; Quoidbach, Berry, Hansenne, & Mikolajcza, 2010). Watson (2019) suggested that the inability to savor the pleasure of the obtained object could boost hedonic accommodation (Lyubomirsky, 2011), which leads to the aspiration to possess more and more. Research by Watson (2019) showed that savoring the moment was negatively associated with materialism, which in turn was related to lower levels of subjective well-beingness (Dittmar, Bond, Hurst, & Kasser, 2014). In a daily diary report which used feel sampling methodology, the multilevel modelling analyses confirmed that savoring is an important mechanism through which people derive happiness from positive events. In item, momentary savoring both mediated and moderated the bear on of daily positive events on a momentary happy mood (Jose, Lim, & Bryant, 2012). In our report we drew on these results and also on the Bryant and Veroff (2007)'s idea that savoring can serve as a mediator in the relationship betwixt positive life-outcome and happiness.
Cocky-esteem. Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of their ain worth. High self-esteem has a potent relationship to well-being. According to Diener's review (2009), positive association betwixt self-esteem and well-being was confirmed in 11 studies. Afterwards it was found that self-esteem was the near powerful predictor of happiness (Furnham & Cheng, 2000; Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Gordeeva & Osin, 2011). As to relationships between optimistic AS and self-esteem, information technology was shown that both types of optimistic attributional style - OAS-Positive and OAS-Negative - positively correlated with high self-esteem (Gordeeva & Osin, 2011).
Dispositional optimism. Dispositional optimism refers to generalized expectations regarding future outcomes: optimistic people believe that skilful things, rather than bad things, will happen (Carver & Scheier, 2014). According to Carver and Scheier, dispositional optimism relates to motivation: optimists exert try, whereas pessimists disengage from endeavour. The relationship between dispositional optimism and well-being has been confirmed in a wide range of studies: optimists compared to pessimists are happier, and their level of satisfaction with life is higher (eastward.g., Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010; Mens, Scheier, & Carver, 2016). Optimists also show lower levels of anxiety and depression; have meliorate health; use active coping strategies more oft; and written report better relationships with others (Carver et al., 2010).
On the other hand, dispositional optimism and optimistic attributional style demonstrate a low to moderate correlation (Reilley et al., 2005; Gordeeva, Sychev, Osin, & Titova Grandchamp, 2019). The similarities and specificities of the two types of optimism, as they are oft called (Compton & Hoffman, 2019), were analyzed by Gordeeva, Sychev, and Osin (2017). It was shown that while these concepts are related, they differ in their mechanisms of interaction with well-being and academic performance.
Our report aimed to examine the relationship between OAS-positive and OAS-negative and subjective well-being, taking into account the role of gratitude, savoring, self-esteem, and dispositional optimism as possible mediators in these relationships. We hypothesized that an optimistic attributional fashion for positive events would exist a significant predictor of life satisfaction and subjective happiness, and that this association is mediated past positive personality traits reflecting positive functioning.
In our study nosotros used two well-established types of well-being variables – subjective happiness and satisfaction with life. According to Diener, subjective well-being is the scientific term for happiness and life satisfaction (2021). Lyubomirsky (2007) has described happiness as the "feel of joy, contentment, or positive well-being, combined with a sense that i'due south life is good, meaningful, and worthwhile" (p. 32). Life satisfaction involves a favorable attitude towards one's life rather than an cess of current feelings; it is a measure of well-existence assessed in terms of satisfaction with relationships, achieved goals, and cocky-perceived ability to cope with i's daily life (Diener, 2021). An individual's levels of subjective well-existence are influenced by both internal and external factors; this study concentrated on the former and explored the importance of cognitive variables in the processes that underlie SWB.
Methods
Participants
The participants were 271 adults from Moscow and the Moscow Region, of whom 41% were university students and 59% were employees working in the public and private sectors. The sample comprised 238 (88%) women and 33 (12%) men; M age = 32.42, SD = 12.9, age range 18 – 78 years.
Measures
To mensurate optimistic attributional fashion equally a stable trait and a possible predictor of subjective well-being, we used a modified version of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson et al., 1982), which featured 10 achievement situations (five positive and five negative) (Gordeeva et al., 2019). A sample negative scenario was: "You have received negative feedback from a respected colleague." Participants were instructed to imagine that each situation had actually happened to them, to write downwardly its near likely cause, and so rate this crusade using a six-bespeak Likert-type scale on 2 master dimensions of attributional style: stability (this cause will never happen once again or will always be present) and globality (this crusade influences only this particular situation or influences all situations in my life). An optimistic attributional way for explaining positive events (OAS-Positive) score was computed by summing the stability and globality ratings for positive situations, and an optimistic AS for negative events (OAS-Negative) score was computed past commencement reversing the ratings of the negative situations, so summing them. The reliability coefficients of all the scales used in this study are presented in Table 1.
Savoring was measured by the Russian version of the Savoring Beliefs Inventory (SBI) (Bryant, 2003), which was adult specifically for this study; straight and back translation of the questionnaire was implemented by 2 bilingual experts. The questionnaire consisted of 24 items that constituted three scales: 1) savoring the moment; two) anticipating; and iii) reminiscing. Each scale consisted of eight items, half of which were worded positively (e.g., "I know how to make the most of a proficient time") and the other one-half were worded negatively (eastward.g., "When it comes to enjoying myself, I'g my own 'worst enemy'"). Respondents rated their agreement with each item using a vii-point Likert scale. The total scale reliability measured by Cronbach'southward α was 0.91, and the reliability of the subscales varied from 0.82 to 0.85, which was considered satisfactory.
To assess gratitude, we used the Russian version of GQ-6 (McCullough et al., 2002), which was developed for this study. Directly and dorsum translation of the questionnaire was implemented by ii bilingual experts. The original version consisted of 6 items, with 4 positively worded statements (e.one thousand., "I have and then much in life to be thankful for") and two negatively worded statements (east.m., "When I expect at the globe, I don't see much to be grateful for") to be rated on a seven-point Likert calibration. In the Russian version of the questionnaire, the reverse items showed weak consistency with the positively worded ones (which is quite a common phenomenon, see Suarez-Alvarez et al., 2018). To improve scale reliability, it was decided to exclude the two reverse items and use iv-item version which demonstrated satisfactory reliability (Cronbach's α = .73).
Dispositional optimism was assessed past the Russian version of the Life Orientation Test (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994; Gordeeva, Sychev, & Osin, 2010). This instrument included four positively worded items, four negatively worded items, and iv filler items rated on 4-point Likert calibration (Cronbach'due south α = .89).
Self-Esteem was assessed using the Russian version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965; Bodalev & Stolin, 1987). The scale consisted of 10 items, five positively and 5 negatively worded, to exist rated on a 4-bespeak Likert scale (Cronbach'due south α = .83).
Subjective well-being. Life satisfaction and happiness were measured with Russian versions (Osin & Leontiev, 2020) of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) and the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). The SWLS consisted of five items which were to exist rated on a v-point Likert scale, and the SHS consisted of four items to be rated on a 7-point Likert scale (Cronbach's α for both scales in this study was .81).
Procedure
This inquiry was introduced equally a study conducted past Psychology Department of Lomonosov Moscow State University entitled "Study of the sources of happiness and psychological well-being." We asked participants to assist science by completing a battery of tests. Every bit a reward we offered private feedback on their personality "happiness profile." Confidentiality was stressed. Well-nigh participants (N=171) completed the online version of the survey.
Since this group was dominated by young respondents (boilerplate historic period 1000 = 28.37, SD = 9.12), to increase the representativeness of the sample, a paper survey was conducted amongst more mature and elderly people (K = 39.36, SD = 15.29), represented mainly by teachers and other staff at ii Moscow schools. The furnishings of which survey type was used were analyzed. The revealed effects were quite weak and did non touch the main assumed predictors (OAS) and dependent variables (well-being indicators). Thus, we concluded that the joint analysis of the "online" and "paper" groups did not compromise the validity of the research findings.
Data Assay
The structural equation modeling was undertaken in Mplus eight, using a robust maximum likelihood estimation (Muthen & Muthen, 2015). A total-information maximum likelihood method (Enders & Bandalos, 2001) was used to analyze missing data (10 cases, three.7% of the sample). To appraise the significance of mediated effects in the structural model, a bootstrap analysis with 5000 samples was carried out in Mplus (Wang & Wang, 2019). Other analyses, including descriptive statistics, correlations, regression analysis, and t-tests were carried out using SPSS.
Results
The correlations amidst the written report variables presented in Table 1 showed that subjective happiness was related to all other measures, including both indicators of OAS, and all indicators of savoring, dispositional optimism, self-esteem, and gratitude. Life satisfaction was correlated with all measured variables with the exception of OAS-Negative. An OAS-Positive also demonstrated significant correlations with all other variables, still, it was non associated with an OAS-Negative, while the latter showed significant correlations with only three variables: cocky-esteem, dispositional optimism, and savoring the moment. All scales of savoring, dispositional optimism, and self-esteem were moderately or strongly interrelated (see Table 1).
Table 1
Descriptive statistics and correlations between optimistic attributional style, subjective well-being and personality variables
| α | Mean | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | six | 7 | 8 | 9 | x | |
| i. Satisfaction with life | .81 | four.74 | 1.06 | — | |||||||||
| ii. Subjective happiness | .81 | four.91 | ane.23 | .66*** | — | ||||||||
| 3. OAS-Positive | .lxxx | four.38 | .95 | .35*** | .35*** | — | |||||||
| 4. OAS-Negative | .85 | 4.21 | i.01 | .02 | .14** | .01 | — | ||||||
| 5. Dispositional optimism | .89 | 2.99 | .79 | .45*** | .65*** | .32*** | .15** | — | |||||
| six. Self-esteem | .83 | 3.13 | .50 | .43*** | .61*** | .35*** | .xxx*** | .59*** | — | ||||
| 7. Gratitude | .73 | 5.78 | .91 | .43*** | .47*** | .29*** | –.01 | .40*** | .32*** | — | |||
| 8. Savoring, anticipating | .85 | 5.31 | one.03 | .xiii* | .26*** | .18** | .01 | .37*** | .25*** | .27*** | — | ||
| nine. Savoring the moment | .82 | iv.96 | ane.xi | .forty*** | .64*** | .24*** | .16* | .59*** | .52*** | .43*** | .45*** | — | |
| ten. Savoring, reminiscing | .84 | 5.45 | 1.01 | .28*** | .35*** | .xv* | .07 | .47*** | .30*** | .35*** | .56*** | .59*** | — |
| 11. Savoring, Total | .91 | 5.24 | .87 | .33*** | .51*** | .23*** | .09 | .57*** | .44*** | .42*** | .80*** | .83*** | .86*** |
Notation. Pairwise deletion of missing data (N is from 261 to 268), * = p ≤ .05; ** = p ≤ .01; *** = p ≤ .001; α = Cronbach's α.
Age showed moderate correlations with an OAS-Negative (r = .36; p ≤ .001), cocky-esteem (r = .25; p ≤ .001), gratitude (r = .17; p ≤ .01), subjective happiness (r = .13; p ≤ .05), and savoring the moment (r = .13; p ≤ .05). These results indicated that age covariates with many written report variables, including indicators of an OAS and well-being, and so measures should be taken in farther analyses to control its furnishings. Analysis of sex activity differences using the Educatee's t-exam revealed that the women had lower hateful scores of an OAS-Positive (Grand(women) = iv.34, Chiliad(men) = four.71; t(265) = two.10; p ≤ .05) and college mean scores of SBI-Time to come (M(women) = five.36, G(men) = four.98; t(264) = ane.97; p ≤ .05).
We so applied regression analysis to gauge the relationships between indicators of well-being and the prepare of its potential predictors which included dispositional optimism, cocky-esteem, gratitude, and savoring, controlling for age. The results of this analysis (Table ii) revealed that life satisfaction was positively related to an OAS-Positive, dispositional optimism, self-esteem, and gratitude. Savoring the future showed a relatively pocket-size negative event on life satisfaction. Happiness was positively associated with dispositional optimism, self-esteem, gratitude, and savoring the moment. These results confirmed the positive effect of an OAS-Positive on subjective well-beingness, but this event may be direct or mediated by another variables.
Table 2
Linear regression models for Life satisfaction and Subjective happiness (Due north=261)
| Predictors | Dependent variables | |||
| Life satisfaction | Subjective happiness | |||
| β | t(251) | β | t(251) | |
| OAS-Positive | 0.13* | two.29 | 0.07 | 1.48 |
| OAS-Negative | –0.05 | –0.82 | –0.01 | –0.33 |
| Dispositional optimism | 0.17* | 2.38 | 0.29*** | 5.08 |
| Cocky-esteem | 0.22** | 3.25 | 0.24*** | 4.42 |
| Gratitude | 0.25*** | 4.25 | 0.17*** | 3.l |
| Savoring, anticipating | –0.16* | –ii.52 | –0.06 | –one.30 |
| Savoring the moment | 0.13 | ane.71 | 0.35*** | 5.96 |
| Savoring, reminiscing | 0.04 | 0.56 | –0.09 | –1.67 |
| Historic period | –0.11 | –ane.92 | –0.03 | –0.64 |
| R² | 0.37 | 0.59 | ||
| F (9 ,251 ) | 16.53 | 42.03 | ||
| p-level | ≤ 0.001 | ≤ 0.001 | ||
Annotation. β – standardized regression coefficients, * = p≤.05; ** = p≤.01; *** = p≤.001.
To examination our hypothesis about mediated relations between an OAS and well-existence, we practical structural equation modelling. Life satisfaction and subjective happiness were included in the model as dependent variables, along with an OAS-Positive, an OAS-Negative, and 4 potential mediators of the effect of OAS on well-being (all of them were allowed to correlate). The only savoring scale included in the model was the savoring-the-moment calibration because of its highly significant positive issue on happiness in the regression analysis results. Given the results presented to a higher place, the participants' historic period was added as a covariate of OAS-Negative and predictor of self-esteem, gratitude, savoring the moment, and subjective happiness. After removing all not-significant paths from this model, we obtained satisfactory fit: χtwo = 27.10; df = 13; p = 0.012; CFI = 0.980; TLI = 0.949; SRMR = 0.056; RMSEA = 0.063 (xc% CI = [0.029, 0.097]); PCLOSE = 0.230; North = 271.
Then we investigated modification indices and added a path from age to life satisfaction in the model. The final model presented in the figure below showed adept fit: χ2 = nineteen.75; df = 12; p = 0.072; CFI = 0.989; TLI = 0.969; SRMR = 0.055; RMSEA = 0.049 (90% CI = [0.000, 0.086]); PCLOSE = 0.474; N = 271.
Figure one. The structural model of relations between the two types of optimistic attributional way (OAS), two indicators of subjective well-beingness, and iv mediators
Note. All coefficients are standardized and significant at p ≤ .01; N = 271.
The results of analyzing the indirect effects of an OAS and age on the subjective well-beingness indicators in the presented structural model revealed that all the effects mediated by individual mediators were statistically significant (come across Tabular array 3).
Table 3
Indirect effects of optimistic attributional mode (OAS) for positive and negative events on life satisfaction and subjective happiness.
| Dependent variable | Predictors | Mediators | Standardized indirect effect | p-level |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Positive | All (Self-esteem, dispositional optimism, gratitude) | .24 | ≤ .001 |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Positive | Self-esteem | .09 | ≤ .01 |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Positive | Dispositional optimism | .06 | ≤ .05 |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Positive | Gratitude | .09 | ≤ .001 |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Negative | All (Self-esteem and gratitude) | .01 | n. south. |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Negative | Self-esteem | .05 | ≤ .05 |
| Satisfaction with life | OAS-Negative | Gratitude | –.04 | ≤ .05 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Positive | All (Self-esteem, dispositional optimism, gratitude and savoring the moment) | .30 | ≤ .001 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Positive | Self-esteem | .10 | ≤ .001 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Positive | Dispositional optimism | .09 | ≤ .001 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Positive | Gratitude | .05 | ≤ .01 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Positive | Savoring the moment | .06 | ≤ .01 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Negative | All (Self-esteem and gratitude) | .02 | north. s. |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Negative | Self-esteem | .05 | ≤ .05 |
| Subjective happiness | OAS-Negative | Gratitude | –.02 | ≤ .05 |
Thus, the structural model revealed that the effects of an OAS-Positive on subjective well-being were fully mediated past gratitude, savoring the moment, self-esteem, and dispositional optimism. Both life satisfaction and subjective happiness depended on gratitude, cocky-esteem, and dispositional optimism, simply only happiness hinged on savoring the moment. The mediated effects of an OAS-Negative through cocky-esteem and gratitude were inconsistent, and then its full indirect effect on subjective well-existence was non pregnant.
Discussion
DeNeve and Cooper (1998) hypothesized that "perhaps what is almost critical to subjective well-beingness is not simply the tendency to feel positive or negative emotion, simply the trend to make either positive or negative attributions" (p. 219). From this standpoint, our study sought to investigate a cerebral mediation model, in which selected positive personality traits were expected to mediate the human relationship between optimistic attributions and SWB. Nosotros take institute that the optimistic attributional style for positive life events uniquely predicted subjective well-being, including happiness and life satisfaction, through positive personality traits such as gratitude, savoring the moment, dispositional optimism, and cocky-esteem. In contrast, an OAS for negative events did not predict either life satisfaction, or subjective happiness. Too, our results showed in one case again that the power to explain the causes of positive events optimistically, i.e., see them every bit global and stable, was unrelated to the power to explain the causes of negative events as local and temporary; these are two different types of optimistic thinking.
Thus, this written report confirmed previous results on the relationships between the trait of savoring and well-beingness (Bryant, 2003) and went further to establish the role of savoring the moment as a mediator between optimistic thinking almost positive life outcomes and happiness. Moreover, the results of our written report propose that there are some differences in the predictive power of the scales. Savoring the moment was significantly more important for well-being, and especially subjective happiness, than savoring of past events and savoring possible future positive events. This may exist due to the different mechanisms of savoring implied in these orientations, which thus need to be studied. For example, savoring the moment is rather close to mindfulness (Kiken, Lundberg, & Fredrickson, 2017; Watson, 2019), which is the ability to have a clear focus upon what is happening in the nowadays moment, and involves intention, attending, and attitude.
The mediational role of gratitude and savoring the moment deserves further attending due to their joint, simply as well complimentary nature, since the former reflects a more eudaimonic perspective (Wood et al., 2010), while the latter reflects a more hedonic one (Diener, Lucas, Oishi, Hall, & Donnellan, 2018). Gratitude is closer to eudaimonic strategy of life, which is defined every bit the presence of personal and social skills and abilities that contribute to optimal psychosocial functioning (Ryff, 2018). With respect to the dispositional optimism and cocky-esteem findings, our results confirmed the hypothesis and previous results in this field.
The sexual practice differences establish in the study, and the finding that women had a lower hateful rate of an OAS-Positive, were minor and did not correspond to our previous results (Gordeeva et al., 2019), which showed no sexual practice differences on this variable. This ways that this function of the inquiry should be replicated with a bigger sample of men. It was too plant that women showed a higher level of anticipatory savoring than men, which can be explained by the reality that women often have hopes for a more favorable hereafter associated with family life, and corresponds to the higher dispositional optimism which has been previously institute in Russian women (Gordeeva, Sychev, & Osin, 2021).
The strength of this study was its nonstudent sample, which included adults of different ranges of age and professions. The positive relationship of age with an OAS-Negative, gratitude, savoring the moment, and self-esteem, and the negative one with life satisfaction, probably reflected the conflicting trends inherent in aging.
Conclusion
Our results point to the conclusion that the ability to explain good events optimistically is unrelated to the ability to optimistically explain bad events, and that it's the sometime that's essential for individuals' positive operation and well-being. The tillage of optimistic thinking promotes gratitude, a strategy that essentially involves appreciative positive attention, and savoring the moment, as well as feelings of self-worth and positive expectations nigh the futurity.
Limitations
This study had some limitations, the well-nigh significant of which was associated with its cross-sectional nature. Despite the path model we presented, we are aware that the study's cantankerous-exclusive design did not let u.s.a. to appraise causality.
Information technology is also important to note the limitation due to the sample not existence balanced by sex, since the vast majority of participants were female (88%). This feature can constrain generalizability of the study'due south findings. Given the sexual practice differences in OAS, dispositional optimism, and savoring, it is important to confirm these findings using a sample more balanced by sexual activity. At the same time it is important to note that the sex differences may be civilization specific: for instance, sex differences on savoring the present moment subscale (which showed to be the chief predictor of happiness) were the smallest (Bryant, 2003) and in our sample were non meaning.
Nevertheless another limitation was the possible validity bug of the Russian version of GQ-6 scale, since it included only four items and did not include the two reverse items. At the same time since other researchers faced the aforementioned problems with these items (run into Chen, Chen, Kee, & Tsai, 2009; Langer, Ulloa, Aguilar-Parra, Araya-Veliz, & Brito, 2016), the four items Russian gratitude measure was considered to be satisfactory enough for enquiry purposes (Cronbach's α = .73).
Finally, taking into account the role of civilisation in the relationship betwixt gratitude and well-being (Peterson et al., 2007), further research on other cultural samples will be of interest.
Ideals Statement
All written report participants gave an informed consent to participate in this study and were informed about its purpose. The participants were volunteers and did not receive any textile rewards for their participation.
Author Contributions
V.A.T.G. and T.O.M. conceived of the idea. V.A.T.Thou. performed the data drove. T.O.Thou. developed the theory. O.A.Southward. and V.A.T.G. performed the computations. O.A.South. verified the belittling methods. Draft grooming was done by V.A.T.K. All authors participated in writing, discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no disharmonize of involvement.
Acknowledgements
The article was prepared within the framework of the HSE University Basic Research Program.
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To cite this article: Titova Grandchamp, Five.A., Gordeeva, T.O., Sychev, O.A. (2021). Optimistic Attributional Style as a Predictor of Well-Being: Exploring the Mediating Roles of Gratitude and Savoring the Moment. Psychology in Russia: Land of the Art, 14(3), fifty-67.
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